The Himalayan region is home to a vast network of natural springs, essential for sustaining millions of people and ecosystems. These springs serve as crucial lifelines in the region’s water supply system. They are known by various names across different areas, such as Chasma and Naag in Jammu & Kashmir, Chhumik in Ladakh, Panihar and Baori in Himachal Pradesh, Naula and Dhara in Uttarakhand, and Dhara in North-East India respectively. Spring water comes from underground aquifers or water-bearing layers that store and transmit water. The health of the recharge, transition, and discharge zones is critical for maintaining a healthy spring. Springs are essential sources of freshwater, feeding nearly every river globally. They are crucial for maintaining water supplies, particularly in areas with limited surface water, contributing significantly to the base flow of major Himalayan Rivers. By feeding rivers and wetlands, springs support irrigation, agriculture, and ecosystem health, while also replenishing groundwater. Additionally, springs act as natural filtration systems, providing clean water to communities.
Springs are facing increasing threats from climate change, environmental degradation, and human activities, creating a growing crisis for local communities. Nearly half of these springs are drying up or becoming seasonal, further intensifying the water crisis in rural areas. Various factors, including erratic rainfall, seismic activity, and ecological degradation due to infrastructure development, are causing springs to dry up or lose discharge. Changing precipitation patterns diminished winter rainfall, and intensified summer monsoons disrupt the water cycle, while rising temperatures accelerate glacier melt, affecting river and spring flows. Deforestation, which reduces groundwater recharge, and over-extraction of groundwater exacerbate seasonal drying. Human activities such as road construction and excessive groundwater extraction further strain aquifers, threatening the sustainability of springs. Kashmir Himalayas are also facing vulnerability due to climate change so are different water bodies.
Contextualizing Kashmir’s Drying Springs
Jammu and Kashmir experienced a rainfall deficit of 79%, recording 12.6 mm rainfall in December 2023, much below the average of 59.6 mm, as per the official data from the India Meteorological Department. The region has been experiencing temperatures 6-8°C above the winter average. Less rain, no snow and high temperatures are impacting agriculture, horticulture, and winter tourism and also increase the risk of forest fires and glacial floods, say experts. In Kashmir, El Niño’s impact is observed through prolonged periods of dry weather, milder winters and reduced snowfall. The weather in Kashmir was previously influenced by the El Niño effect in January 1998, December 2014, January 2015 and December 2018. This demonstrates the rising temperatures in the region.
The average annual temperature in Kashmir has increased by 0.8°C since 1980, with the maximum temperature rising by 1.05°C since 2000, resulting in more extreme summers and dry winters. The most visible impact is reduced water discharge, driven by declining precipitation and altered snowfall patterns in the Pir-Panjal range. In the region, glaciers have retreated by 10-15% between 2000 and 2020, while ongoing deficits in rainfall and snowfall, along with early loss of snow cover in recharge zones, have probably contributed to the depletion of springs.
From December 1, 2024, to February 20, 2025, Kashmir has recorded the worst-ever rainfall deficit in the past eight years. The data reveals that the Valley has witnessed 70% deficit rainfall between December 2024 and February 2025. In the year 2024, Kashmir recorded a deficit rainfall of 40%. In the year 2023, there was a deficit of 10% rainfall in the months between December to February. In the year 2022, the precipitation of 10% was recorded. In 2018, the total deficit of rainfall between December to February was 30% as per the data. This is indicative of the fact that water sources are reducing in Kashmir.
Kashmir’s water sources are dwindling at an alarming rate. The different sources of water in the valley are largely dependent on glacier-fed rivers and natural springs. Over the past few decades, global warming has disrupted traditional weather patterns, leading to reduced snowfall and precipitation. Studies reveal that rising temperatures are causing glaciers to melt at an accelerated pace. However, instead of replenishing rivers and springs, this rapid melting leads to flash floods, followed by long-term water shortages as glacial reserves continue to deplete. Apart from global warming, rapid urbanization, indiscriminate deforestation, excessive groundwater extraction, poor water management loss of natural habitat and wetlands have further accelerated the depletion of water resources.
Drying of rivers and springs has become a recurrent phenomenon in the valley nowadays. Key sources of spring water include rainwater, melting snow or ice in mountainous regions and surface water from rivers or streams etc. In southern Kashmir, Karst springs are prime examples of how water dissolves rock to create underground channels that later surface as springs. Notable Karst springs like Kokernag, Sheerbag, Panzathnag, Malaknag, Verinag, Aripal, Martandnag, and Achabal etc., emerge from this unique limestone terrain. Around 258 different types of springs have been reported in the Kashmir valley. Together, these sources ensure a steady flow of freshwater vital for both ecosystems and communities. These springs are facing threat due to climate change.
Some springs have experienced the reduced flow and gradual drying up Achabal spring, historically vital for agriculture, irrigation, and drinking water, is particularly affected, impacting locals and trout farmers. The decline of Achabal Spring is also threatening the historic Mughal garden built by Empress Nur Jahan in the 17th century. Other springs across the valley, including Aripal (Tral), Verinag, Panzathnag (Qazigund), Sheerbag (Anantnag) and Bulbul Nag (Pulwama) etc, are also showing signs of drying up and reduced flow. In addition to climate change, the destruction of aquifer structures and changes to the springshed configuration are further accelerating the loss of spring flow. Riverbed excavation and borewell installation are further exacerbating the drying of springs, particularly in areas where urbanization and infrastructure development have disturbed the natural water flow.
Given the rising crisis, the Government of India has launched various initiatives aimed at enhancing water security, including the conservation of springs. Key programs like the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), focusing on “Source Sustainability,” and the Springshed Rejuvenation initiative under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (WDC-PMKSY 2.0), are central to these efforts. Additionally, the establishment of the NITI Aayog Working Group on the “Inventory and Revival of Springs for Water Security in the Himalayas” underscores the importance of springs for long-term water security.
A dedicated “Spring Studies Cell” to research spring hydrology and develop protection strategies has also been established at NIH. The Western Himalayan Regional Centre (WHRC), Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, has further supported these efforts by researching springs in the Tawi River Basin, developing an interactive Web Inventory, publishing a Spring Atlas, and organizing training to enhance local capacity in Springshed Management and Rejuvenation. These initiatives are crucial for ensuring the protection and sustainability of these essential water sources.
Policy Interventions
Despite clear signs of water depletion, Kashmir lacks a comprehensive water conservation policy. Inefficient irrigation techniques, unregulated water usage, the absence of rainwater harvesting, and weak enforcement of environmental regulations have further worsened the crisis. Illegal sand mining from riverbeds has also disrupted the natural flow of water, affecting river stability. Without immediate corrective measures, the region could face severe and irreversible water shortages. Environmental experts warn that the crisis is not solely due to a dry winter but also stems from long-term ecological neglect and climate change.
To mitigate the water crisis, the government must implement a well-structured water conservation policy that includes rainwater harvesting, regulating groundwater extraction, efficient irrigation techniques and monitoring hydroelectric projects. Implementing rainwater harvesting in urban and rural areas is important to reduce dependency on underground water. Besides this, preventing the depletion of natural springs and streams through regulated groundwater extraction should be prioritized. Also, minimizing agricultural water wastage by promoting efficient irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation should be given due consideration. Furthermore, it should also be mandated that hydroelectric projects do not excessively divert river water through strict monitoring. Strict enforcement of land-use laws should be adhered to prevent illegal encroachments.
To prevent water bodies from contamination of household and industrial wastes, pollution control measures should be put in place. In addition to this, community participation in wetland conservation efforts must also be ensured. Some of the key programs include launching afforestation programs in degraded forest areas to restore water cycles, implementing green urban planning policies, ensuring sufficient green spaces for rainwater absorption and enforcing strict penalties to curb illegal logging and deforestation.
It is also important to practice sustainable agriculture. This includes training farmers in water-efficient irrigation methods to minimize wastage, promoting crop rotation and soil conservation to retain moisture, and encouraging drought-resistant crops to reduce water dependency. In addition to this public awareness and community involvement can play an instrumental role which includes conducting awareness campaigns on water conservation and sustainable resource management, and establishing community-led water management programs to involve locals in the conservation of springs, streams, and wetlands. Introducing school-level environmental education programs to instil conservation values in the younger generation can also be undertaken.
Legal and policy reforms can play an essential role in this direction which includes enacting stronger environmental laws to prevent illegal sand mining, deforestation, and wetland encroachments, implementing strict water usage policies for industries and construction projects and finally establishing a dedicated water resource management authority to oversee conservation efforts and policy implementation.
Conclusion
The drying up of springs, depletion of Kashmir’s wetlands, and the declining water levels of the Chenab River are clear warning signs of an impending water crisis that could severely impact agriculture, biodiversity, and daily life. While climate change plays a role, human-induced factors have significantly worsened the situation. The government, civil society, and local communities must collaborate to implement sustainable water conservation strategies, restore wetlands, regulate groundwater use, and promote afforestation. If immediate measures are not taken, Kashmir could face a severe water crisis, threatening both its people and its fragile ecosystem. Now is the time for decisive action to ensure that the region’s natural water resources are preserved for future generations. A holistic strategy involving conservation, sustainable urban planning, afforestation, and efficient water distribution is the only way forward.
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