Education serves as a cornerstone in fostering social and economic transformation within societies and nations. From empowering women to combating social marginalization, education holds significant potential in mitigating gender disparity and social inequality. It plays a crucial role in promoting social and economic development by equipping individuals with the necessary skills and knowledge. However, in India, the documented disparity in access to education has historically placed women and scheduled groups in unfavorable positions. This gap becomes particularly evident in access to higher education due to the trade-off between entering the labor market and pursuing further education. This article aims to examine access and equity in higher education within the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir. To accomplish this, we will utilize data from the All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) for the 2021-22 period, the latest year for which data is available.
The All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) defines higher education as “education obtained after completing 12 years of schooling or its equivalent, with a duration of at least nine months (full time), or after completing 10 years of schooling with a duration of at least 3 years. This education may encompass General, Vocational, Professional, or Technical education.” In India, higher education comprises eight levels: Integrated, Certificate, Diploma, PG Diploma, Undergraduate, Postgraduate, M.Phil., and Ph.D.
Indicators for analysis
To assess access to higher education, we will utilize the renowned indicator, Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER), as defined by UNESCO. It is calculated as the total enrolment in a specific level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population in the official age group corresponding to that level of education. In India, the official age group for higher education is 18-23 years. Therefore, GER is determined by enrolments across all eight levels of education, expressed as a percentage of the population aged 18-23. An increase in GER signifies a higher participation rate in higher education.
We will employ GER across social groups of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe to analyze the disparity in access to higher education among these groups. Additionally, to examine gender disparity, we will use another indicator known as the Gender Parity Index (GPI), calculated as GER for females divided by GER for males. A GPI close to 1 indicates parity between the two sexes; if it is less than one, it suggests disparity against women, and if it is greater than one, it implies disparity against men in enrolment.
Furthermore, we will compare the GER of the Union Territory with the national average to gauge the status of higher education in Jammu and Kashmir. Additionally, we will compare the GER of social groups in the UT with the national average GER of social groups and the average GER of the UT itself. These comparisons will provide insights as we proceed with the analysis.
Analysis
We commence by comparing the GER of the Union Territory (UT) with the national average GER. In 2021-22, the GER of the UT stood at 24.8%, while the national average was 28.4%. Therefore, the difference between the GER of the UT and the all-India level is 3.6 percentage points, which is quite substantial. When compared to states with GER close to 50%, such as Delhi (49%), Tamil Nadu (47%), Himachal Pradesh (43%), Uttarakhand (41.8%), and Kerala (41.3%), it clearly underscores the inadequate state of enrolments in the UT.
Moving on to the GER of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the UT, both groups exhibit lower GER percentages compared to the average GER of the UT (24.8%) by 4.4 and 5.9 percentage points, respectively. This indicates a significant disparity among social groups in Jammu and Kashmir. Notably, the UT lags behind the national average in enrolments, with Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes trailing even further behind the aggregate GER level of the UT.
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes face unfavorable positions at the national level as well, with both categories falling well behind the country-level average GER. However, when comparing the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes of Jammu and Kashmir with those of India as a whole, they also lag behind by 5.5 and 2.3 percentage points, respectively.
Hence, the position of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes appears dismal when compared to the aggregate GER level of the UT and the GER of SC and ST at the national level.
The graph below illustrates the aforementioned points.
When comparing the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) across genders, we observe a mixed picture. The Gender Parity Index is greater than one at the aggregate level (1.20) and in the Scheduled Caste (SC) category (1.21), while it is less than 1 in the Scheduled Tribe (ST) category (0.89). This indicates that the GER of females surpasses that of males at the aggregate and SC levels, but not in the ST category. Specifically, at the aggregate level, the GER of females (27.2%) exceeds that of males (22.6%) by 4.6 percentage points, and in the SC category, the GER of females (22.5%) surpasses that of males (18.6%) by 3.9 percentage points. However, in the case of Scheduled Tribes, the GER of males (19.9%) is higher than that of females (17.8%) by 2.1 percentage points.
Therefore, there is no disparity in enrolment against women in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir. However, men are in an unfavourable position at the aggregate level and in the SC category regarding enrolments in the UT.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the analysis of access and equity in higher education in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir reveals significant disparities across social groups and genders. Despite education being recognized as a crucial driver for social and economic development, the data indicates a considerable gap between the UT and the national average in terms of Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER), with marginalized groups such as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes facing even greater challenges.
The disparity becomes more evident when comparing GER across social groups within the UT, with Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes lagging behind the aggregate level GER. Moreover, when compared to national averages, these marginalized groups in Jammu and Kashmir are even further disadvantaged.
Gender disparity presents a mixed picture, with females generally having higher GER than males at the aggregate level and among Scheduled Castes, while the opposite is observed among Scheduled Tribes. This suggests that while there is no overall disparity against women in enrollment, men face challenges in accessing higher education, particularly at the aggregate level and within Scheduled Castes in the Union Territory.
Addressing these disparities requires concerted efforts from policymakers, educational institutions, and society at large. Initiatives aimed at improving access to education, particularly for marginalized groups, must be prioritized to ensure equitable opportunities for all individuals. Additionally, strategies to address the specific needs of different social groups and genders should be implemented to create a more inclusive higher education system in Jammu and Kashmir. Ultimately, fostering a more equitable educational landscape is essential for the overall development and prosperity of the region.
Future study
The author intends to conduct a comprehensive study in the future by disaggregating the data at various levels of education, such as Undergraduate, Postgraduate, and Ph.D. levels, to examine access to higher education across different social groups.
Data Source:
Ministry of Education, Department of Higher Education, All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) 2021-22. https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/document-reports/Annual%20Report_2022-23_English.pdf
Leave a Reply
You must belogged in to post a comment.